Exploring our archives

Today David Miliband announced the UK’s new climate change bill, getting the message across with this video on YouTube. Climate change has become a matter of increasingly concern, especially after last month’s report that global warming could involve a rise in temperatures of around 4 degrees by the end of the century, with chaotic consequences. The Royal Society has been involved with the investigation into climate change: a study launched in January will focus in particular on the effects of ground-level ozone, one of the greenhouse gasses likely to influence warming.

Although most of the opposition to the view that human activity is responsible for climate change has now dissipated, studying the interaction between the properties of the air and the weather has long been hotly debated. In the seventeenth century the concept of air having a changeable gaseous nature rather than representing a static element was a new and controversial idea. The existence of some exhaustible property of air could be proven by Robert Hooke’s experiments with the now familiar experiment using a candle flame inside a jar. He repeated this using a chick and then himself, who fortunately both remained ‘very lively’. The possibilities afforded by this new understanding of air were also demonstrated in Boyle’s famous airpump, described in his New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects.

Not everyone was convinced immediately: Thomas Hobbes was famously critical of the credibility of Boyle’s experimental proofs. Many also doubted the validity of the experiments that the Royal Society performed to test air pressure using barometers and to compare the weights of various substances in air and water.

A page of the Hooke folio that does not seem to have survived elsewhere, probably dating from 1678, defends the various experiments against an attack on them as ‘triuiall and impertinent tricks’ by those who think themselves ‘masters of all knowledge a priori and by Reuelation and dispise[d] such as is acquired by experimental inquiry’. He goes on to argue that, concerning air:

An exact and thorough knowledge of that is of more concerne
to mankind then all the other physicall knowledg in the world. for
it is by that we continually subsist & wthout it we cannot liue one
tenth part of an hower. tis from that proceeds the causes of Infi=
nite of Diseases, and It affordes as many Remedys for those Distem
pers…that is the cause sine
qua non of all vegetables and animalls vpon the Land and it Influences euen
the fish in the sea. Infinite and vnspeakable are the vses of it to the husband
man the merchant the tradesman the mechanick &c and that age will be
Deseruedly famous that perfects the theory of it.

Hooke’s argument apparently gained acceptance among the Royal Society, who continued to investigate the properties of the air and their effects on the atmosphere. As a recent article in Amix notes, Nehemiah Grew came up with an interesting if incorrect theory that attributed barometric variations to the changing concentrations of saline bodies in the air, that affected atmospheric pressure. By the time of the Great Trigonometrical survey in India, observers were directed to record the chemical composition of the air.

Despite the innovations of John Evelyn in predicting the consequences of man’s interference with the environment in his discourse on forest trees, the impact of man on the composition of the air would only become significant after the industrial revolution and not fully appreciated until long after that. Furthermore, the age which Hooke envisages in which the understanding of the air and our interaction with it is perfected still seems far distant.

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Did you see the lunar eclipse on Saturday night? Lunar eclipses occur when the earth blocks the sun’s light by passing between the sun and the moon and we see the earth’s shadow gradually cast across the moon. Although lunar eclipses are not particularly rare, with a clear sky, as on Saturday night, the sight of the moon with a red or copper hue is an impressive sight.

The Folio records accounts observing both solar and lunar eclipses and, interestingly, these were viewed as sufficiently important to be included in the index to the Folio. Such accounts tended to be in the form of letters, for instance in July 1782, Cassini writes to Flamstead, describing an eclipse of the moon in Dantizick, whilst in December 1685, Hevlius writes to Aston ,again with an account of a lunar eclipse in Dantizick. These descriptions are not confined to the Hooke Folio, however, and form part of a wider pattern of interest in lunar eclipses within the early Royal Society. For example accounts of eclipses are sent from various places including Paris and Moscow, whilst in 1666, Gresham-Professor of Geometry Mr Rook’s methods for observing a lunar eclipse are published in the Society’s Philosophical Transactions. He says that the observer, preferably using a telescope rather than the naked eye, should pick out three of the ‘eminentest spots’ which ‘lie nearest the ecliptick’ and note the time a shadow is first cast on each one and when they are ‘completely entered in’ and out of the shadow. Rook also comments that observing lunar eclipses is important, not only for the astronomical information that could be gleaned, but also for the geographical information, such as comparing how observations made by scientists in various countries both differed and converged.

If you missed Saturday’s eclipse, one should be visible (weather permitting) on July 16th, though only if you live in Asia, the Pacific or the West of the Americas, if you live in Europe then you’ll have to wait until 9th January.

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In November 1681, the folio records that ‘Mr. Hooke Produced A new sort of Instrument for Describing the Rhombs or spirall lines vpon the Planisphericall projection on the pole of the world and shewed how the same would easily Describe all manner of Proportionall spiralls whether Greater or Lesse whether wider or narrower. And mentioned also what vse it might be for nauigation and sea charts.’ A few months later, Hooke produced a globe about a foot in diameter fitted with this instrument, and claimed that he could ‘thereby both Geometrically and mechanically Draw all the Rhumb lines vpon it most exactly’. A ‘rhumb line’, although sometimes used to indicate a straight line between two points on a Mercator chart, seems here to have its modern meaning of a curve that crosses each meridian at the same angle and the spirals Hooke refers to describe the way in which a rhumb spirals towards one of the poles.

The instrument designed by Hooke apparently had numerous applications: this is probably what he used in June that year to demonstrate the truth of Archimedes’ ancient theory on spirals, namely that ‘If a straight line drawn in a plane revolves uniformly any number of times about a fixed extremity until it returns to its original position, and if, at the same time as the line revolves, a point moves uniformly along the straight line beginning at the fixed extremity, the point will describe a spiral in the plane.’

Hooke later used the instrument in other ways, attaching it to a compass in order to describe a parabola. This apparently met with some opposition: at a meeting of 15 February 1682, it was noted that Flamstead had ‘cavilled against’ Hooke’s method, ‘affirming it to be fals’. On the repeated demonstration of the working of the instrument, however, the Society agreed that it was ‘true and certain and the best way yet known of describing that curve’. The final reference is in March 1682 and refers to the use of the instrument to describe an ellipse. By this entry Waller has noted ‘Quere Mr Hunt what this was and how performed’. Apparently, then the instrument and its method of use had been lost by the time Waller acquired Hooke’s papers in 1708. Richard Waller, a strong supporter of Hooke’s claims to priority had also made annotations against Hooke’s manuscripts about clocks or watches in Trinity College Cambridge – perhaps believing that they contained the solution to the long-term problem of longitude. He may, therefore, have also believed that this lost instrument was a significant piece of equipment in Hooke’s claim to have invented a new method of planispherical projection to be used in mapping.

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The first part of the folio (around 100 pages) contains Hooke’s extracts from early Royal Society journals. One of the recurring discussions centres on the chariot designs of Hooke and Thomas Blount. Although the use of the term ‘chariot’ might conjure up images of the classical two-wheeled variety, this is a thoroughly seventeenth-century version on both two and four wheels (though the use of the term ’chariot’ possibly stemmed from the fashion for using classical terms during the period). This provides a good example of how experiments and designs were presented to the Society as a kind of work in progress, which were discussed at meetings and where members could suggest improvements or offer solutions to difficulties encountered by the experimenters or designers.

Hooke and Blount showed their designs over the course of a number of meetings and various adjustments were made. For example Hooke realised that the springs of the chariot needed to be shortened for ease of turning in the street (which may also indicate the narrowness of seventeenth-century streets). However, shorter strings would impede the comfort of the rider, so following a series of experiments, Hooke decides to shorten and double the strings to accomodate both for the comfort of the rider and the demands of turning the chariot. He also experiments with the positioning of the rider in relation to the wheels, realising that this will impact on the burden felt by the horse.

By June 1665, Hooke was getting close to perfecting the design, but he was unable to show it again until 14th March 1666 as the Society’s meetings were suspended due to the plague, however prior to the recess, he was urged to perfect his chariot.

Hooke brought the chariot with him on his return to London. It was drawn by one horse and gave ‘great ease to the Riders both to him that sitts in the chariot and to him that sitts ouer the horse vpon a springy saddle’. By 23rd May 1666, Hooke and Blount’s chariots were requested to be shown ’Saturday following in the afternoon’ to ‘compare’ them. Exactly what is meant by ‘compare’ is not stated, though I do like to think that some kind of race might have been involved - just imagine the scene - Hooke and Blount at St George’s Field on a Saturday afternoon, Hooke on one side with his chariot, Blount on the other, whilst members of the Royal Society looked on - who needs rugby and football matches, when you can watch chariots on a Saturday afternoon?

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Very few people like going to the dentist, but imagine what dental treatment would have been like in the seventeenth century.

The first recorded dental treatments actually occured in ancient Egypt and China and by the seventeenth century, treatments included tinctures, styptics and extractions. In July 1678, Dr Holder suggests that toothache can be treated by putting oil of tobacco into the hollow of a rotten tooth, though Hooke remarks that such treatment sent a maid servant into convulsions and led to her death, so it might not be a good method after all.

A few months later in January 1679, they continue their discussion of teeth, but here recount how teeth could be aritficially set in place of old ones. They find that if a new tooth was inserted as soon as the rotten one had been drawn out ‘the gums would coalesce and inclose the teeth as firmly almost, as if they were natural.’ This treatment was carried out on a young lady whose teeth were ‘much rotted by eating sweet meats’ by extracting the bad teeth and replacing them with those of a young boy. The treatment, for the young lady proved successful, though was perhaps not so good for the now toothless young boy.   

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Acupuncture has been practiced in China, Japan and Korea for centuries and along with other ‘traditional’ or ‘complementary’ therapies remains a controversial topic in Western medicine. In the Hooke folio, an account of a meeting on the 18 January 1682 records the Royal Society discussing a letter from a Wilhem Ten Rhyne, from the factory of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) which asks that his manuscript on the use of acupuncture in Japan be published in English. The letter also describes the use of artemisia vulgaris, commonly known as mugwort, a herb used traditionally in Europe and America. In Oriental medicine it is known as moxa and is used in combination with acupuncture to stimulation circulation. The use of moxa to cure gout had also been discussed in a meeting of 1st August 1678, leading to a wider discussion about the effects of heat on the human body. This led to the observation that, like Chinese and Japanese doctors, Galen had paid more attention to the pulses in various parts of the body than was usual among surgeons of the day.

The Royal Society continued to debate the benefits of both moxa and acupuncture: a letter of 1692 from Wilhelm Ten Rhyne answers a list of queries about the specific uses of the techniques in Japan. These remedies had also been noted by Engelbert Kaempfer (1651-1716) in his ‘History of Japan, giving an account of the ancient and present state and government of that empire. . .To which is added, part of a journal of a voyage to Japan, made by the English in the year 1673’. Kaempfer’s manuscript was not published for almost a century acquired by the botanist and President of the Royal Society Hans Sloane who saw to the translation of the work by Johann Caspar Scheuchzer and its publication in 1727.

The benefits of ‘alternative’ or ‘complementary’ medicines are still hotly debated. While some claim that acupuncture essentially has a placebo effect, other research has suggested more tangible medical effects, most recently in treating Parkinson’s disease. The effects of artemisia vulgaris are a matter of continuing debate, some studies (for example the study of Cardini and Weixin published in JAMA in 1998) suggest it can assist in breach births by promoting fetal activity. A recent Royal Society policy paper on the issue stresses the importance of large scale randomised control trials in exploring the effects of types of therapies.

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A vaguely Valentine’s Day related post today

Observing the transit of Venus, the time at which the planet passes between the sun and earth, is a constant feature of the early records of the Royal Society, who received correspondence from around the world recording the precise times at which it was observed. The purpose of this romantic exercise, similarly to the mapping of the transits of Mercury, was to make observations relating to the position of the sun and planet, using the parallax method. This was pioneered by Edmund Halley, who explains the theory in Philosophical Transactions (translated here for those not keen to read the original in Latin). Mapping transits also has practical applications in navigation as it provides a natural clock with the aid of which longitudes, still a thorny problem in the seventeenth and eighteenth century due to the dearth of reliable timekeepers, could be calculated according to the difference in time between locations on a reference meridian. Perhaps this explains the interest of the East India Company, who allowed Halley to visit St Helena, where he built an observatory, the remains of which can still be observed on the island.

Halley’s work promoted international collaboration between scientists as well as voyages of exploration: most notably Captain Cook’s voyage to Tahiti to observe the 1769 transit. Romantics will have to wait a while to emulate the early stargazers, however, as the next transit is predicted to be visible in 2012.

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Malaria is a major health problem and is thought to be responsible for about 18% of all deaths of children aged under five years in sub-Saharan Africa, or between 700 000 and 900 000 children each year, as well as aiding the spread of other diseases such as HIV/AIDS by weakening the immune system. Trials to develop an effective vaccine are ongoing. However, treatments using the anti-malarial properties of the bark of the chinconcha tree have been known for centuries, and used for many years against the disease until its active ingredient, quinine, began to be produced artificially.

The folio records a letter from the Royal Society’s prolific correspondent and later member Henri Justel, which mentions ‘Jesuits Bark’, the name being given to the bark of the Peruvian chinconcha tree. The letter does not survive, but the bark was not forgotten and together with numerous other substances it was boiled together with water, spirit of wine and white wine (RB. 6. 213, 1685) in Mr Pappin’s ‘digesting’ machine. Impressed, Pappin reported back that the bark lasted three or four time longer than bones before being reduced to a powder. There is no mention of the medical properties of the bark here, however, and the next reference to it in the Royal Society records occurs in the Philosophical Transactions of 1737/8. By this time the bark is clearly in demand: the author Dr Grey gives detailed information about the four different types of tree in Peru, their various effects and preparations, and reports that the drug enters Europe through Panama. He goes on to express concern that the exploitation by the Spanish will soon wipe out the local indigenous population who had been well aware of the anti-malarial properties of the plant well before the arrival of the colonisers, and that the bark will become scarce due to over-exploitation.

Anti-malarial drugs and the development of insecticides that kill the mosquitos carried the disease were of course a valuable tool in the exploration and final colonisation of Africa by European powers during the next century. This provided impetus for the identification of the parasite of the genus Plasmodium and the artificial production of quinine. Concerns like those expressed by Grey about the availability and intellectual property surrounding anti-malarial drugs still exist today. Problems with malaria prevention include the tendency for insects to develop resistance to insecticides like DDT, as well as their potentially negative environmental and health effects. The Royal Society has continued to engage with the problem of malaria: Hiliary Ranson is currently conducting research into the DNA of insecticide-resistant plasmodium in an attempt to evolve a method of blocking the process of development of resistance. Her research is demonstrated by this interactive tool. The recent winner of the Royal Society’s Pfizer Award, Dr Alex Nzila has taken a different approach: focusing on drug resistance in humans, he has shown that resistance can be reduced by combining an existing anticancer drug, methotrexate, with folic acid.

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Recently the film Perfume was released. It’s based on the novel by Patrick Süskind set in eighteenth-century France and explores the protagonist’s obsessive desire to create a perfume, which ultimately takes a deadly turn.

Interestingly, the science of perfume making was a topic of discussion in the Hooke Folio. Whilst the focus is initially on perfume made with jasmine, the mixing of jasmine with orange flowers and rose petals is also examined - particularly in terms of the liquid and scent produced when pickled, and how to make the scent long lasting. They also look to the practices of perfume makers in other countries, for example the President praises the skills of Chinese perfume makers, whilst a comparison is made between the strength of perfume worn by women in Britain and those in Spain and Italy.

Seemingly women in Britain were scorned by their Italian and Spanish counterparts for their sensitivity to the ‘highest perfumes’, particularly in terms of finding the smell ‘offensive’. However it is suggested that this is because Britain has ’somewhat peculiar … air for that purpose’ using an anecdote from Mr Henshaw, who describes how an Italian woman developed a dislike for strong perfume (which she formerly prized) after spending a period of time in Britain.

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As you probably know, we are experiencing the second hottest January on record. Although official records began around a century after the date of the Hooke folio, predicting and understanding the weather was also important to Hooke and his contemporaries.

In the early part of the folio there are discussions about how to measure very low temperatures and also how Barometers can be refined and developed to make them more accurate. There are also quite a lot of letters where people write in complaining that their Barometers are not working. They are also interested in extremes of weather and the folio details correspondence about a hurricane in Tangiers and how the changes in the barometer reflected the change in weather. Interestingly, Hooke’s diary, also records the weather. To start with he divides the page in half where half contains the events of the day and the other details the weather, though later he records all this information together.  

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